As outlined above, what differs from GR in all the relativistic MOND theories is the relation
between the non-relativistic potential and the underlying mass distribution of the lens
.
However, different theories yield slightly different relations between
and
in the weak-field
limit (see especially Sections 6.1 and 6.2). For instance, while GEA theories (Section 7.7) boil
down to Eq. 17
in the static weak-field limit, TeVeS (Section 7.4) leads to the situation of
Eq. 40
, and BIMOND (Section 7.8) to Eq. 30
. However, like in the case of rotation curves (see
Figure 20
), the differences are only minor outside of spherical symmetry (and null in spherical
symmetry), and the global picture can be obtained by assuming a relation given by the BM equation
(Eq. 17
).
The first studies of strong lensing by galaxies in relativistic MOND theories [93, 501, 507] made use of
the CfA-Arizona Space Telescope Lens Survey (CASTLES) and made a one-parameter–fit of
the lens mass to the observed size of the Einstein radius, both for point-mass models and for
Hernquist spheres (with observed core radius). Zhao et al. [507] also compared the predicted
and observed flux ratios
. They used the
-function of Eq. 46
, and concluded
that reasonably good fits could be obtained with a lens mass corresponding to the expected
baryonic mass of the lens. Shan et al. [419
] then improved the modelling method by considering
analytic non-spherical models with locally–spherically-symmetric isopotentials on both sides of the
symmetry plane
, implying no curl field correction (
) in Eq. 19
. The MOND
non-relativistic potential
can then analytically be written, and using Eq. 108
, one can
analytically compute the two components
and
of the deflection angle vector
as a
function of the three parameters of the model, namely the lens-mass and two scale-lengths
controlling the extent and flattening of the lens (see Eq. 18 of [419
]). Using the lens equation
(Eq. 109
), one can then trace back light-rays for each observed image to the source plane and fit the
lens parameters as well as its inclination, in order for the source position to be the same for
each image. The quality of the fit is thus quantified by the squared sum of the source position
differences. This notably allowed [419
] to fit in MOND the famous quadruple-imaged system
Q2237+030 known as the Einstein cross (see Figure 41
), a quasar gravitationally lensed by an
isolated bulge-disk galaxy [197]. However, for three other quadruple-imaged systems of the
CASTLES survey, the fits were less successful mostly because of the intrinsic limitations of the
analytic model of Shan et al.[419
] at reproducing at the same time both a large Einstein radius
and a large shear. What is more it does not take into account the effects of the environment
in the form of an external shear, which is also often needed in GR to fit quadruple-imaged
systems. For 10 isolated double-imaged systems in the CASTLES survey, the fits were much more
successful58.
However, for non-isolated systems, especially for those lenses residing in groups or clusters, the need for an
external shear might be coupled to a need for dark mass on galaxy group scales (see Section 6.6.4 and
Section 8.3).
Due to the fact that all the above models were using the Bekenstein -function (
in Eq. 46
),
and that this function has a tendency of slightly underpredicting stellar mass-to-light ratios in
galaxy rotation curve fits [145], it was claimed that this was a sign for a MOND missing mass
problem in galaxy lenses [152, 153, 262]. While such a missing mass is indeed possible, and even
corroborated by some dynamical studies [364] of galaxies residing inside clusters (i.e., the small-scale
equivalent of the problem of MOND in clusters), for isolated systems with well-constrained stellar
mass-to-light ratio, the use of the simple
-function (
in Eq. 46
) has, on the contrary,
been shown to yield perfectly acceptable fits [94] in accordance with the lensing fundamental
plane [400].
Finally, the probability distribution of the angular separation of the two images in a sample of
lensed quasars has been investigated by Chen [90, 91]. This important question has proven
somewhat troublesome for the
CDM paradigm, but is well explained by relativistic MOND
theories [90].
http://www.livingreviews.org/lrr-2012-10 |
Living Rev. Relativity 15, (2012), 10
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