Heavens et al. [429] have used Bayesian evidence to distinguish between models, using the Fisher matrices
for the parameters of interest. This study calculates the ratio of evidences
for a 3D weak lensing
analysis of the full Euclid survey, for a dark-energy model with varying equation of state, and modified
gravity with additionally varying growth parameter
. They find that Euclid can decisively distinguish
between, e.g., DGP and dark energy, with
. In addition, they find that it will
be possible to distinguish any departure from GR which has a difference in
greater than
. A phenomenological extension of the DGP model [332, 11] has also been tested with
Euclid. Specifically, [199
] found that it will be possible to discriminate between this modification
to gravity from
CDM at the
level in a wide range of angular scale, approximately
.
Thomas et al. [886] construct Fisher matrix forecasts for the Euclid weak lensing survey, shown in
Figure 11. The constraints obtained depend on the maximum wavenumber which we are confident in using;
is relatively conservative as it probes the linear regime where we can hope to analytically track
the growth of structure;
is more ambitious as it includes nonlinear power, using the [844
]
fitting function. This will not be strictly correct, as the fitting function was determined in a GR context.
Note that
is not very sensitive to
, while
, defined in [41
] as
(and where
is defined in Eq. 1.3.28
) is measured much more accurately in the nonlinear
regime.
Amendola et al. [41] find Euclid weak lensing constraints for a more general parameterization that
includes evolution. In particular,
is investigated by dividing the Euclid weak lensing survey into
three redshift bins with equal numbers of galaxies in each bin, and approximating that
is constant
within that bin. Since
, i.e., the value of
in the
bin (present-day) is degenerate with the
amplitude of matter fluctuations, it is set to unity. The study finds that a deviation from unit
(i.e.,
GR) of 3% can be detected in the second redshift bin, and a deviation of 10% is still detected in the furthest
redshift bin.
Beynon et al. [132] make forecasts for modified gravity with Euclid weak lensing including [457] in
interpolating between the linear spectrum predicted by modified gravity, and GR on small scales as required
by Solar System tests. This requires parameters (a measure of the abruptness of transitioning between
these two regimes),
(controlling the
-dependence of the transition) and
(controlling the
-dependence of the transition).
The forecasts for modified gravity parameters are shown in Figure 12 for the Euclid lensing data. Even
with this larger range of parameters to fit, Euclid provides a measurement of the growth factor
to
within 10%, and also allows some constraint on the
parameter, probing the physics of nonlinear
collapse in the modified gravity model.
Finally, Song et al. [848] have shown forecasts for measuring and
using both imaging and
spectroscopic surveys. They combine 20,000 square-degree lensing data (corresponding to [550
] rather than
to the updated [551
]) with the peculiar velocity dispersion measured from redshift space distortions in the
spectroscopic survey, together with stringent background expansion measurements from the CMB and
supernovae. They find that for simple models for the redshift evolution of
and
, both quantities can
be measured to 20% accuracy.
The Euclid mission will produce a catalog of up to 100 million galaxy redshifts and an imaging survey that
should allow to estimate the galaxy ellipticity of up to 2 billion galaxy images. Here we discuss these
surveys and fix their main properties into a “Euclid model”, i.e., an approximation to the real Euclid survey
that will be used as reference mission in the following.
Modeling the Redshift Survey.
The main goals of next generation redshift surveys will be to constrain the dark-energy parameters and to
explore models alternative to standard Einstein gravity. For these purposes they will need to consider very
large volumes that encompass , i.e., the epoch at which dark energy started dominating the energy
budget, spanning a range of epochs large enough to provide a sufficient leverage to discriminate among
competing models at different redshifts.
Here we consider a survey covering a large fraction of the extragalactic corresponding to
capable to measure a large number of galaxy redshifts out to
. A promising observational strategy is
to target H
emitters at near-infrared wavelengths (which implies
) since they guarantee both
relatively dense sampling (the space density of this population is expected to increase out to
) and
an efficient method to measure the redshift of the object. The limiting flux of the survey should be the
tradeoff between the requirement of minimizing the shot noise, the contamination by other lines (chiefly
among them the [O ii] line), and that of maximizing the so-called efficiency
, i.e., the fraction of
successfully measured redshifts. To minimize shot noise one should obviously strive for a low
flux. Indeed, [389
] found that a limiting flux
would be able to
balance shot noise and cosmic variance out to
. However, simulated observations of mock
H
galaxy spectra have shown that
ranges between 30% and 60% (depending on the
redshift) for a limiting flux
[551
]. Moreover, contamination
from [O ii] line drops from 12% to 1% when the limiting flux increases from
to
[389].
Taking all this into account, in order to reach the top-level science requirement on the number
density of H galaxies, the average effective H
line flux limit from a 1-arcsec diameter
source shall be lower than or equal to
. However, a slitless spectroscopic
survey has a success rate in measuring redshifts that is a function of the emission line flux. As
such, the Euclid survey cannot be characterized by a single flux limit, as in conventional slit
spectroscopy.
We use the number density of H galaxies at a given redshift,
, estimated using the latest
empirical data (see Figure 3.2 of [551
]), where the values account for redshift – and flux – success rate, to
which we refer as our reference efficiency
.
However, in an attempt to bracket current uncertainties in modeling galaxy surveys, we consider two
further scenarios, one where the efficiency is only the half of and one where it is increased by a factor
of 40%. Then we define the following cases:
The total number of observed galaxies ranges from (pess.) to
(opt.). For all cases we
assume that the error on the measured redshift is
, independent of the limiting flux of
the survey.
![]() |
![]() ![]() |
![]() ![]() |
![]() ![]() |
0.65 – 0.75 | 1.75 | 1.25 | 0.63 |
0.75 – 0.85 | 2.68 | 1.92 | 0.96 |
0.85 – 0.95 | 2.56 | 1.83 | 0.91 |
0.95 – 1.05 | 2.35 | 1.68 | 0.84 |
1.05 – 1.15 | 2.12 | 1.51 | 0.76 |
1.15 – 1.25 | 1.88 | 1.35 | 0.67 |
1.25 – 1.35 | 1.68 | 1.20 | 0.60 |
1.35 – 1.45 | 1.40 | 1.00 | 0.50 |
1.45 – 1.55 | 1.12 | 0.80 | 0.40 |
1.55 – 1.65 | 0.81 | 0.58 | 0.29 |
1.65 – 1.75 | 0.53 | 0.38 | 0.19 |
1.75 – 1.85 | 0.49 | 0.35 | 0.18 |
1.85 – 1.95 | 0.29 | 0.21 | 0.10 |
1.95 – 2.05 | 0.16 | 0.11 | 0.06 |
Modeling the weak lensing survey. For the weak lensing survey, we assume again a sky coverage of 15,000 square degrees. For the number density we use the common parameterization
whereIn this section we forecast the constraints that future observations can put on the growth rate and on a
scale-independent bias, employing the Fisher matrix method presented in Section 1.7.3. We use the
representative Euclid survey presented in Section 1.8.2. We assess how well one can constrain the bias
function from the analysis of the power spectrum itself and evaluate the impact that treating bias as a free
parameter has on the estimates of the growth factor. We estimate how errors depend on the parametrization
of the growth factor and on the number and type of degrees of freedom in the analysis. Finally, we explicitly
explore the case of coupling between dark energy and dark matter and assess the ability of measuring
the coupling constant. Our parametrization is defined as follows. More details can be found
in [308].
For the fiducial values of the bias parameters in every bin, we assume (already
used in [753
]) since this function provides a good fit to H
line galaxies with luminosity
modeled by [698
] using the semi-analytic GALFORM models of [108]. For the
sake of comparison, we will also consider the case of constant
corresponding to the rather
unphysical case of a redshift-independent population of unbiased mass tracers.
The fiducial values for are computed through
Now we express the growth function and the redshift distortion parameter
in terms of the
growth rate
(see Eqs. (1.8.8
), (1.8.7
)). When we compute the derivatives of the spectrum in the Fisher
matrix
and
are considered as independent parameters in each redshift bin. In this way
we can compute the errors on
(and
) self consistently by marginalizing over all other
parameters.
Now we are ready to present the main result of the Fisher matrix analysis . We note that in all tables
below we always quote errors at 68% probability level and draw in the plots the probability regions at
68% and/or 95% (denoted for shortness as 1 and 2 values). Moreover, in all figures, all the
parameters that are not shown have been marginalized over or fixed to a fiducial value when so
indicated.
The fiducial growth function in the
-th redshift bin is evaluated from a step-wise,
constant growth rate
as
Table 4 illustrates one important result: through the analysis of the redshift-space galaxy power
spectrum in a next-generation Euclid-like survey, it will be possible to measure galaxy biasing in
redshift bins with less than 1.6% error, provided that the bias function is independent of scale.
We also tested a different choice for the fiducial form of the bias:
finding that the precision in
measuring the bias as well as the other parameters has a very little dependence on the
form. Given
the robustness of the results on the choice of
in the following we only consider the
case.
In Figure 14 we show the errors on the growth rate
as a function of redshift, overplotted to our
fiducial
CDM (green solid curve). The three sets of error bars are plotted in correspondence of the 14
redshift bins and refer (from left to right) to the Optimistic, Reference and Pessimistic cases, respectively.
The other curves show the expected growth rate in three alternative cosmological models: flat DGP
(red, longdashed curve), CDE (purple, dot-dashed curve) and different
models (see
description in the figure caption). This plot clearly illustrates the ability of next generation
surveys to distinguish between alternative models, even in the less favorable choice of survey
parameters.
The main results can be summarized as follows.
z |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
||||
ref. | opt. | pess. | ref. | opt. | pess. | ||||
0.7 | 0.016 | 0.015 | 0.019 | 1.30 | 0.7 | 0.76 | 0.011 | 0.010 | 0.012 |
0.8 | 0.014 | 0.014 | 0.017 | 1.34 | 0.8 | 0.80 | 0.010 | 0.009 | 0.011 |
0.9 | 0.014 | 0.013 | 0.017 | 1.38 | 0.9 | 0.82 | 0.009 | 0.009 | 0.011 |
1.0 | 0.013 | 0.012 | 0.016 | 1.41 | 1.0 | 0.84 | 0.009 | 0.008 | 0.011 |
1.1 | 0.013 | 0.012 | 0.016 | 1.45 | 1.1 | 0.86 | 0.009 | 0.008 | 0.011 |
1.2 | 0.013 | 0.012 | 0.016 | 1.48 | 1.2 | 0.87 | 0.009 | 0.009 | 0.011 |
1.3 | 0.013 | 0.012 | 0.016 | 1.52 | 1.3 | 0.88 | 0.010 | 0.009 | 0.012 |
1.4 | 0.013 | 0.012 | 0.016 | 1.55 | 1.4 | 0.89 | 0.010 | 0.009 | 0.013 |
1.5 | 0.013 | 0.012 | 0.016 | 1.58 | 1.5 | 0.91 | 0.011 | 0.010 | 0.014 |
1.6 | 0.013 | 0.012 | 0.016 | 1.61 | 1.6 | 0.91 | 0.012 | 0.011 | 0.016 |
1.7 | 0.014 | 0.013 | 0.017 | 1.64 | 1.7 | 0.92 | 0.014 | 0.012 | 0.018 |
1.8 | 0.014 | 0.013 | 0.018 | 1.67 | 1.8 | 0.93 | 0.014 | 0.013 | 0.019 |
1.9 | 0.016 | 0.014 | 0.021 | 1.70 | 1.9 | 0.93 | 0.017 | 0.015 | 0.025 |
2.0 | 0.019 | 0.016 | 0.028 | 1.73 | 2.0 | 0.94 | 0.023 | 0.019 | 0.037 |
Next, we focus on the ability of determining and
, in the context of the
-parameterization
and
,
in the
-parameterization. In both cases the Fisher matrix elements have been estimated by
expressing the growth factor as
As a second step we considered the case in which and
evolve with redshift according
to Eqs. (1.8.5
) and (1.8.2
) and then we marginalized over the parameters
,
and
. The marginalized probability contours are shown in Figure 17
in which we have shown
the three survey setups in three different panels to avoid overcrowding. Dashed contours refer
to the
-dependent parameterizations while red, continuous contours refer to the case of
constant
and
obtained after marginalizing over
. Allowing for time dependency
increases the size of the confidence ellipses since the Fisher matrix analysis now accounts for
the additional uncertainties in the extra-parameters
and
; marginalized error values
are in columns
,
of Table 8. The uncertainty ellipses are now larger and
show that DGP and fiducial models could be distinguished at
level only if the redshift
survey parameter will be more favorable than in the Reference case.
We have also projected the marginalized ellipses for the parameters and
and
calculated their marginalized errors and figures of merit, which are reported in Table 9. The
corresponding uncertainties contours are shown in the right panel of Figure 16
. Once again
we overplot the expected values in the
and DGP scenarios to stress the fact that one
is expected to be able to distinguish among competing models, irrespective on the survey’s
precise characteristics.
We have repeated the same analysis as for the -parameterization taking into account the
possibility of coupling between DE and DM, i.e., we have modeled the growth factor according
to Eq. (1.8.6
) and the dark-energy equation of state as in Eq. (1.8.2
) and marginalized over all
parameters, including
. The marginalized errors are shown in columns
,
of Table 8 and the significance contours are shown in the three panels of Figure 18
which is
analogous to Figure 17
. Even if the ellipses are now larger we note that errors are still small
enough to distinguish the fiducial model from the
and DGP scenarios at
and
level respectively.
Marginalizing over all other parameters we can compute the uncertainties in the and
parameters, as listed in Table 10. The relative confidence ellipses are shown in the left panel of
Figure 19
. This plot shows that next generation Euclid-like surveys will be able to distinguish
the reference model with no coupling (central, red dot) to the CDE model proposed by [44
]
(white square) only at the
level.
case | ![]() |
![]() |
FoM | |
![]() |
ref. | 0.02 | 0.017 | 3052 |
with | opt. | 0.02 | 0.016 | 3509 |
![]() |
pess. | 0.026 | 0.02 | 2106 |
bias | case | ![]() |
FoM | |
ref. | 0.03 | 0.04 | 1342 | |
![]() |
opt. | 0.03 | 0.03 | 1589 |
pess. | 0.04 | 0.05 | 864 | |
|
|
|
|
|
case | ![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
|
![]() |
ref. | 0.007 | 0.002 | 0.0004 | 0.008 | 0.03 | 0.006 |
bias | case | ![]() |
![]() |
FoM | ![]() |
![]() |
FoM |
ref. | 0.15 | 0.07 | 97 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 216 | |
![]() |
opt. | 0.14 | 0.06 | 112 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 249 |
pess. | 0.18 | 0.09 | 66 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 147 | |
bias | case | ![]() |
![]() |
FoM |
ref. | 0.15 | 0.4 | 87 | |
![]() |
opt. | 0.14 | 0.36 | 102 |
pess. | 0.18 | 0.48 | 58 | |
|
|
|
|
|
bias | case | ![]() |
![]() |
FoM |
ref. | 0.07 | 0.06 | 554 | |
![]() |
opt. | 0.07 | 0.06 | 650 |
pess. | 0.09 | 0.08 | 362 | |
Finally, in order to explore the dependence on the number of parameters and to compare
our results to previous works, we also draw the confidence ellipses for ,
with three
different methods: i) fixing
and
to their fiducial values and marginalizing over
all the other parameters; ii) fixing only
and
; iii) marginalizing over all parameters
but
,
. As one can see in Figure 20
and Table 11 this progressive increase in the
number of marginalized parameters reflects in a widening of the ellipses with a consequent
decrease in the figures of merit. These results are in agreement with those of other authors (e.g.,
[945
]).
The results obtained in this section can be summarized as follows.
However, our ability in separating the fiducial model from the CDE model is significantly
hampered: the confidence contours plotted in the -
plane show that discrimination
can only be performed wit
significance. Yet, this is still a remarkable improvement
over the present situation, as can be appreciated from Figure 19
where we compare the
constraints expected by next generation data to the present ones. Moreover, the Reference
survey will be able to constrain the parameter
to within 0.06. Reminding that we can
write
[307], this means that the coupling parameter
between dark energy and
dark matter can be constrained to within 0.14, solely employing the growth rate information.
This is comparable to existing constraints from the CMB but is complementary since obviously
it is obtained at much smaller redshifts. A variable coupling could therefore be detected by
comparing the redshift survey results with the CMB ones.
![]() |
![]() |
FoM | |
![]() ![]() |
0.05 | 0.16 | 430 |
![]() |
0.06 | 0.26 | 148 |
marginalization over all other parameters | 0.07 | 0.3 | 87 |
It is worth pointing out that, whenever we have performed statistical tests similar to those already
discussed by other authors in the context of a Euclid-like survey, we did find consistent results. Examples of
this are the values of FoM and errors for ,
, similar to those in [945
, 614
] and the errors on
constant
and
[614
]. However, let us notice that all these values strictly depend on the
parametrizations adopted and on the numbers of parameters fixed or marginalized over (see, e.g.,
[753
]).
In this section we apply power spectrum tomography [448] to the Euclid weak lensing survey without using
any parameterization of the Hubble parameter as well as the growth function
. Instead, we
add the fiducial values of those functions at the center of some redshift bins of our choice to
the list of cosmological parameters. Using the Fisher matrix formalism, we can forecast the
constraints that future surveys can put on
and
. Although such a non-parametric
approach is quite common for as concerns the equation-of-state ratio
in supernovae surveys
[see, e.g., 22
] and also in redshift surveys [815
], it has not been investigated for weak lensing
surveys.
The Fisher matrix is given by [458]
where For the matter power spectrum we use the fitting formulae from [337] and for its nonlinear corrections
the results from [844
]. Note that this is where the growth function enters. The convergence power spectrum
for the
-th and
-th bin can then be written as
We determine intervals in redshift space such that each interval contains the same amount of
galaxies. For this we use the common parameterization
This is being done by linearly interpolating the functions through their supporting points, e.g.,
for
. Any function that depends on either
or
hence becomes a function
of the
and
as well.
![]() |
0.1341 |
![]() |
0.02258 |
![]() |
0.088 |
![]() |
0.963 |
![]() |
0.266 |
![]() |
–1 |
![]() |
0 |
![]() |
0.547 |
![]() |
0 |
![]() |
0.801 |
![]() |
0.375 |
![]() |
0.9 |
![]() |
0.05 |
![]() |
30 |
![]() |
0.22 |
|
|
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
0.02 |
The values for our fiducial model (taken from WMAP 7-year data [526]) and the survey parameters that
we chose for our computation can be found in Table 12.
As for the sum in Eq. (1.8.10), we generally found that with a realistic upper limit of
and a step size of
we get the best result in terms of a figure of merit (FoM), that we defined
as
Note that this is a fundamentally different FoM than the one defined by the Dark Energy Task Force. Our definition allows for a single large error without influencing the FoM significantly and should stay almost constant after dividing a bin arbitrarily in two bins, assuming the error scales roughly as the inverse of the root of the number of galaxies in a given bin.
We first did the computation with just binning and using the common fit for the growth
function slope [937]
Notice that here we assumed no prior information. Of course one could improve the FoM by taking into account some external constraints due to other experiments.
In order to fully exploit next generation weak lensing survey potentialities, accurate knowledge of nonlinear
power spectra up to is needed [465, 469]. However, such precision goes beyond the claimed
accuracy of the popular halofit code [844].
[651] showed that, using halofit for non-CDM models, requires suitable corrections. In spite of
that, halofit has been often used to calculate the spectra of models with non-constant DE state
parameter
. This procedure was dictated by the lack of appropriate extensions of halofit to
non-
CDM cosmologies.
In this paragraph we quantify the effects of using the halofit code instead of -body outputs
for nonlinear corrections for DE spectra, when the nature of DE is investigated through weak
lensing surveys. Using a Fisher-matrix approach, we evaluate the discrepancies in error forecasts
for
,
and
and compare the related confidence ellipses. See [215
] for further
details.
The weak lensing survey is as specified in Section 1.8.2. Tests are performed assuming three different
fiducial cosmologies: CDM model (
,
) and two dynamical DE models, still consistent
with the WMAP+BAO+SN combination [526
] at 95% C.L. They will be dubbed M1 (
,
) and M3 (
,
). In this way we explore the dependence of our results
on the assumed fiducial model. For the other parameters we adopt the fiducial cosmology of
Secton 1.8.2.
The derivatives to calculate the Fisher matrix are evaluated by extracting the power spectra from the
-body simulations of models close to the fiducial ones, obtained by considering parameter increments
. For the
CDM case, two different initial seeds were also considered, to test the dependence on
initial conditions, finding that Fisher matrix results are almost insensitive to it. For the other fiducial
models, only one seed is used.
-body simulations are performed by using a modified version of pkdgrav [859] able to handle any
DE state equation
, with
particles in a box with side
. Transfer
functions generated using the camb package are employed to create initial conditions, with a
modified version of the PM software by [510], also able to handle suitable parameterizations of
DE.
Matter power spectra are obtained by performing a FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) of the matter density
fields, computed from the particles distribution through a Cloud-in-Cell algorithm, by using a regular grid
with . This allows us to obtain nonlinear spectra in a large
-interval. In particular, our
resolution allows to work out spectra up to
. However, for
neglecting
baryon physics is no longer accurate [481, 774, 149, 976, 426]. For this reason, we consider WL spectra only
up to
.
Particular attention has to be paid to matter power spectra normalizations. In fact, we found that,
normalizing all models to the same linear , the shear derivatives with respect to
,
or
were largely dominated by the normalization shift at
,
and
values being quite
different and the shift itself depending on
,
and
. This would confuse the
dependence of
the growth factor, through the observational
-range. This normalization problem was not previously met
in analogous tests with the Fisher matrix, as halofit does not directly depend on the DE state
equation.
As a matter of fact, one should keep in mind that, observing the galaxy distribution with
future surveys, one can effectively measure , and not its linear counterpart. For these
reasons, we choose to normalize matter power spectra to
, assuming to know it with high
precision.
In Figures 23 we show the confidence ellipses, when the fiducial model is
CDM, in the cases of 3 or 5
bins and with
. Since the discrepancy between different seeds are small, discrepancies
between halofit and simulations are truly indicating an underestimate of errors in the halofit
case.
As expected, the error on estimate is not affected by the passage from simulations to
halofit, since we are dealing with
CDM models only. On the contrary, using halofit leads to
underestimates of the errors on
and
, by a substantial 30 – 40% (see [215] for further
details).
This confirms that, when considering models different from CDM, nonlinear correction obtained
through halofit may be misleading. This is true even when the fiducial model is
CDM itself and we
just consider mild deviations of
from
.
Figure 24 then show the results in the
-
plane, when the fiducial models are M1 or M3. It is
evident that the two cases are quite different. In the M1 case, we see just quite a mild shift, even if they are
(10%) on error predictions. In the M3 case, errors estimated through halofit exceed simulation errors
by a substantial factor. Altogether, this is a case when estimates based on halofit are not
trustworthy.
The effect of baryon physics is another nonlinear correction to be considered. We note that the details of a study on the impact of baryon physics on the power spectrum and the parameter estimation can be found in [813]
As we have seen in Section 1.3.1, when dark energy clusters, the standard sub-horizon Poisson equation
that links matter fluctuations to the gravitational potential is modified and . The deviation from
unity will depend on the degree of DE clustering and therefore on the sound speed
. In this subsection
we try to forecast the constraints that Euclid can put on a constant
by measuring
both via weak
lensing and via redshift clustering. Here we assume standard Einstein gravity and zero anisotropic stress
(and therefore we have
) and we allow
to assume different values in the range
0 – 1.
Generically, while dealing with a non-zero sound speed, we have to worry about the sound horizon
, which characterizes the growth of the perturbations; then we have at least three regimes
with different behavior of the perturbations:
As we have set the anisotropic stress to zero, the perturbations are fully described by . The main
problem is therefore to find an explicit expression that shows how
depends on
. [785
] have provided
the following explicit approximate expression for
which captures the behavior for both super- and
sub-horizon scales:
Eq. (1.8.21) depends substantially on the value of the sound speed or, to put it differently, on the scale
considered. For scales larger than the sound horizon (
), Eq. (1.8.21
) scales as
and for
and
we have that
We can characterize the dependence of on the main perturbation parameter
by looking at its
derivative, a key quantity for Fisher matrix forecasts:
There are several observables that depend on :
There are two ways to influence the growth factor: firstly at background level, with a different
Hubble expansion. Secondly at perturbation level: if dark energy clusters then the gravitational
potential changes because of the Poisson equation, and this will also affect the growth rate of
dark matter. All these effects can be included in the growth index and we therefore expect
that
is a function of
and
(or equivalently of
and
).
The growth index depends on dark-energy perturbations (through ) as [785]
The distortion induced by redshift can be expressed in linear theory by the factor, related to the
bias factor and the growth rate via:
Quantifying the impact of the sound speed on the matter power spectrum is quite hard as we need to
run Boltzmann codes (such as camb, [559]) in order to get the full impact of dark-energy
perturbations into the matter power spectrum. [786
] proceeded in two ways: first using the camb
output and then considering the analytic expression from [337] (which does not include dark energy
perturbations, i.e., does not include
).
They find that the impact of the derivative of the matter power spectrum with respect the sound
speed on the final errors is only relevant if high values of are considered; by decreasing the sound
speed, the results are less and less affected. The reason is that for low values of the sound speed other
parameters, like the growth factor, start to be the dominant source of information on
.
Hence, the lensing potential contains three conceptually different contributions from the dark-energy perturbations:
We use the representative Euclid survey presented in Section 1.8.2 and we extend our survey up to three
different redshifts: . We choose different values of
and
in order to maximize
the impact on
: values closer to
reduce the effect and therefore increase the errors on
.
In Figure 25 we report the
confidence region for
for two different values of the sound
speed and
. For high value of the sound speed (
) we find
and the relative
error for the sound speed is
. As expected, WL is totally insensitive to the
clustering properties of quintessence dark-energy models when the sound speed is equal to
. The presence of dark-energy perturbations leaves a
and
dependent signature in
the evolution of the gravitational potentials through
and, as already mentioned,
the increase of the
enhances the suppression of dark-energy perturbations which brings
.
Once we decrease the sound speed then dark-energy perturbations are free to grow at smaller scales. In
Figure 25 the confidence region for
for
is shown; we find
,
; in the last case the error on the measurement of the sound speed is reduced to the 70%
of the total signal.
In Figure 26 we report the confidence region for
for two different values of the sound speed
and
. For high values of the sound speed (
) we find, for our benchmark survey:
, and
. Here again we find that galaxy power spectrum is not
sensitive to the clustering properties of dark energy when the sound speed is of order unity.
If we decrease the sound speed down to
then the errors are
,
.
In conclusion, as perhaps expected, we find that dark-energy perturbations have a very small effect on
dark matter clustering unless the sound speed is extremely small, . Let us remind that in order
to boost the observable effect, we always assumed
; for values closer to
the sensitivity to
is further reduced. As a test, [786] performed the calculation for
and
and
found
and
for WL and galaxy power spectrum experiments,
respectively.
Such small sound speeds are not in contrast with the fundamental expectation of dark energy being
much smoother that dark matter: even with , dark-energy perturbations are more than one order
of magnitude weaker than dark matter ones (at least for the class of models investigated here) and safely
below nonlinearity at the present time at all scales. Models of “cold” dark energy are interesting because
they can cross the phantom divide [536] and contribute to the cluster masses [258
] (see also Section 1.6.2 of
this review ). Small
could be constructed for instance with scalar fields with non-standard kinetic
energy terms.
In this section, we present the Euclid weak lensing forecasts of a specific, but very popular, class of models,
the so-called models of gravity. As we have already seen in Section 1.4.6 these models are described
by the action
In principle one has complete freedom to specify the function , and so any expansion history can
be reproduced. However, as discussed in Section 1.4.6, those that remain viable are the subset that very
closely mimic the standard
CDM background expansion, as this restricted subclass of models can evade
solar system constraints [230, 906, 410], have a standard matter era in which the scale factor
evolves according to
[43] and can also be free of ghost and tachyon instabilities
[682, 415].
To this subclass belongs the popular model proposed by [456] (1.4.52
). [200] demonstrated that
Euclid will have the power of distinguishing between it and
CDM with a good accuracy. They
performed a tomographic analysis using several values of the maximum allowed wavenumber of the Fisher
matrices; specifically, a conservative value of 1000, an optimistic value of 5000 and a bin-dependent setting,
which increases the maximum angular wavenumber for distant shells and reduces it for nearby shells.
Moreover, they computed the Bayesian expected evidence for the model of Eq. (1.4.52
) over the
CDM model as a function of the extra parameter
. This can be done because the
CDM
model is formally nested in this
model, and the latter is equivalent to the former when
. Their results are shown in Figure 27
. For another Bayesian evidence analysis of
models and the added value of probing the growth of structure with galaxy surveys see also
[850].
This subclass of models can be parameterized solely in terms of the mass of the scalar field,
which as we have seen in Eq. (1.4.71
) is related to the
functional form via the relation
Whilst these models are practically indistinguishable from CDM at the level of background
expansion, there is a significant difference in the evolution of perturbations relative to the standard GR
behavior.
The evolution of linear density perturbations in the context of gravity is markedly different than
in the standard
CDM scenario;
acquires a nontrivial scale dependence at late times.
This is due to the presence of an additional scale
in the equations; as any given mode
crosses the modified gravity ‘horizon’
, said mode will feel an enhanced gravitational
force due to the scalar field. This will have the effect of increasing the power of small scale
modes.
Perturbations on sub-horizon scales in the Newtonian gauge evolve approximately according to
where In Figure 28 the linear matter power spectrum is exhibited for this parameterization (dashed line),
along with the standard
CDM power spectrum (solid line). The observed, redshift dependent tilt is due
to the scalaron’s influence on small scale modes, and represents a clear modified gravity signal. Since weak
lensing is sensitive to the underlying matter power spectrum, we expect Euclid to provide direct constraints
on the mass of the scalar field.
By performing a Fisher analysis, using the standard Euclid specifications, [887] calculates the expected
parameter sensitivity of the weak lensing survey. By combining Euclid weak lensing and Planck
Fisher matrices, both modified gravity parameters
and
are shown to be strongly constrained by
the growth data in Figure 29
. The expected
bounds on
and
are quoted as
,
when using linear data
only and
,
when utilizing the full set of nonlinear modes
.
In this section we present forecasts for coupled quintessence cosmologies [33, 955, 724
], obtained when
combining Euclid weak lensing, Euclid redshift survey (baryon acoustic oscillations, redshift distortions and
full
shape) and CMB as obtained in Planck (see also the next section for CMB priors). Results
reported here were obtained in [42
] and we refer to it for details on the analysis and Planck specifications
(for weak lensing and CMB constraints on coupled quintessence with a different coupling see also
[637, 284]). In [42
] the coupling is the one described in Section 1.4.4.4, as induced by a scalar-tensor model.
The slope
of the Ratra–Peebles potential is included as an additional parameter and Euclid
specifications refer to the Euclid Definition phase [551
].
The combined Fisher confidence regions are plotted in Figure 30 and the results are in Table 13. The
main result is that future surveys can constrain the coupling of dark energy to dark matter
to less
than
. Interestingly, some combinations of parameters (e.g.,
vs
) seem to profit the most
from the combination of the three probes.
Parameter | ![]() ![]() |
![]() ![]() |
![]() |
0.00051 | 0.00032 |
![]() |
0.055 | 0.032 |
![]() |
0.0037 | 0.0010 |
![]() |
0.0080 | 0.0048 |
![]() |
0.00047 | 0.00041 |
![]() |
0.0057 | 0.0049 |
![]() |
0.0049 | 0.0036 |
![]() |
0.0051 | 0.0027 |
We can also ask whether a better knowledge of the parameters ,
obtained by independent future observations, can give us better constraints on the coupling
.
In Table 14 we show the errors on
when we have a better knowledge of only one other
parameter, which is here fixed to the reference value. All remaining parameters are marginalized
over.
It is remarkable to notice that the combination of CMB, power spectrum and weak lensing is already a
powerful tool and a better knowledge of one parameter does not improve much the constraints on .
CMB alone, instead, improves by a factor 3 when
is known and by a factor 2 when
is
known. The power spectrum is mostly influenced by
, which allows to improve constraints on
the coupling by more than a factor 2. Weak lensing gains the most by a better knowledge of
.
Fixed parameter | CMB | ![]() |
WL | CMB + ![]() |
(Marginalized on all params) | 0.0094 | 0.0015 | 0.012 | 0.00032 |
![]() |
0.0093 | 0.00085 | 0.0098 | 0.00030 |
![]() |
0.0026 | 0.00066 | 0.0093 | 0.00032 |
![]() |
0.0044 | 0.0013 | 0.011 | 0.00032 |
![]() |
0.0087 | 0.0014 | 0.012 | 0.00030 |
![]() |
0.0074 | 0.0014 | 0.012 | 0.00028 |
![]() |
0.0094 | 0.00084 | 0.0053 | 0.00030 |
![]() |
0.0090 | 0.0015 | 0.012 | 0.00032 |
Other dark-energy projects will enable the cross-check of the dark-energy constraints from Euclid. These include Planck, BOSS, WiggleZ, HETDEX, DES, Panstarrs, LSST, BigBOSS and SKA.
Planck will provide exquisite constraints on cosmological parameters, but not tight constraints on dark
energy by itself, as CMB data are not sensitive to the nature of dark energy (which has to be probed at
, where dark energy becomes increasingly important in the cosmic expansion history and the growth
history of cosmic large scale structure). Planck data in combination with Euclid data provide powerful
constraints on dark energy and tests of gravity. In the next Section 1.8.9.1, we will discuss how to create a
Gaussian approximation to the Planck parameter constraints that can be combined with Euclid forecasts in
order to model the expected sensitivity until the actual Planck data is available towards the end of
2012.
The galaxy redshift surveys BOSS, WiggleZ, HETDEX, and BigBOSS are complementary to Euclid,
since the overlap in redshift ranges of different galaxy redshift surveys, both space and ground-based, is
critical for understanding systematic effects such as bias through the use of multiple tracers of cosmic large
scale structure. Euclid will survey H emission line galaxies at
over 20,000 square
degrees. The use of multiple tracers of cosmic large scale structure can reduce systematic effects and
ultimately increase the precision of dark-energy measurements from galaxy redshift surveys [see, e.g.,
811
].
Currently on-going or recently completed surveys which cover a sufficiently large volume to measure BAO at several redshifts and thus have science goals common to Euclid, are the Sloan Digital Sky Survey III Baryon Oscillations Spectroscopic Survey (BOSS for short) and the WiggleZ survey.
BOSS9
maps the redshifts of 1.5 million Luminous Red Galaxies (LRGs) out to over 10,000 square
degrees, measuring the BAO signal, the large-scale galaxy correlations and extracting information of the
growth from redshift space distortions. A simultaneous survey of
quasars measures the
acoustic oscillations in the correlations of the Lyman-
forest. LRGs were chosen for their high bias, their
approximately constant number density and, of course, the fact that they are bright. Their spectra and
redshift can be measured with relatively short exposures in a 2.4 m ground-based telescope. The
data-taking of BOSS will end in 2014.
The WiggleZ10
survey is now completed, it measured redshifts for almost 240,000 galaxies over 1000 square degrees at
. The target are luminous blue star-forming galaxies with spectra dominated by patterns of
strong atomic emission lines. This choice is motivated by the fact that these emission lines can be
used to measure a galaxy redshift in relatively short exposures of a 4 m class ground-based
telescope.
Red quiescent galaxies inhabit dense clusters environments, while blue star-forming galaxies trace better lower density regions such as sheets and filaments. It is believed that on large cosmological scales these details are unimportant and that galaxies are simply tracers of the underlying dark matter: different galaxy type will only have a different ‘bias factor’. The fact that so far results from BOSS and WiggleZ agree well confirms this assumption.
Between now and the availability of Euclid data other wide-field spectroscopic galaxy redshift surveys
will take place. Among them, eBOSS will extend BOSS operations focusing on 3100 square
degrees using a variety of tracers. Emission line galaxies will be targeted in the redshift window
. This will extend to higher redshift and extend the sky coverage of the WiggleZ
survey. Quasars in the redshift range
will be used as tracers of the BAO feature
instead of galaxies. The BAO LRG measurement will be extended to
, and the quasar
number density at
of BOSS will be tripled, thus improving the BAO Lyman-
forest
measure.
HETDEX is expected to begin full science operation is 2014: it aims at surveying 1 million Lyman-
emitting galaxies at
over 420 square degrees. The main science goal is to map the BAO
feature over this redshift range.
Further in the future, we highlight here the proposed BigBOSS survey and SuMIRe survey with
HyperSupremeCam on the Subaru telescope. The BigBOSS survey will target [OII] emission line galaxies at
(and LRGs at
) over 14,000 square degrees. The SuMIRe wide survey proposes to
survey
square degrees in the redshift range
targeting LRGs and [OII]
emission-line galaxies. Both these surveys will likely reach full science operations roughly at the same time
as the Euclid launch.
Wide field photometric surveys are also being carried out and planned. The on-going Dark Energy Survey
(DES)11
will cover 5000 square degrees out to and is expected to complete observations in 2017; the
Panoramic Survey Telescope & Rapid Response System (Pan-STARRS), on-going at the single-mirror stage,
The PanSTARSS survey, which first phase is already on-going, will cover 30,000 square degrees with 5
photometry bands for redshifts up to
. The second pause of the survey is expected to be competed
by the time Euclid launches. More in the future the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) will cover
redshifts
over 20,000 square degrees, but is expected to begin operations in
2021, after Euclid’s planned launch date. The galaxy imaging surveys DES, Panstarrs, and
LSST will complement Euclid imaging survey in both the choice of band passes, and the sky
coverage.
SKA (which is expected to begin operations in 2020 and reach full operational capability in 2024) will
survey neutral atomic hydrogen (HI) through the radio 21 cm line, over a very wide area of the sky. It is
expected to detect HI emitting galaxies out to making it nicely complementary to Euclid. Such
galaxy redshift survey will of course offer the opportunity to measure the galaxy power spectrum (and
therefore the BAO feature) out to
. The well behaved point spread function of a synthesis array
like the SKA should ensure superb image quality enabling cosmic shear to be accurately measured and
tomographic weak lensing used to constrain cosmology and in particular dark energy. This weak lensing
capability also makes SKA and Euclid very complementary. For more information see, e.g.,
[755, 140].
The Figure 31 puts Euclid into context. Euclid will survey H
emission line galaxies at
over 20,000 square degrees. Clearly, Euclid with both spectroscopic and photometric
capabilities and wide field coverage surpasses all surveys that will be carried out by the time it launches.
The large volume surveyed is crucial as the number of modes to sample for example the power spectrum
and the BAO feature scales with the volume. The redshift coverage is also important especially at
where the dark-energy contribution to the density pod the universe is non-negligible (at
for most
cosmologies the universe is effectively Einstein–de Sitter, therefore, high redshifts do not contribute much
to constraints on dark energy). Having a single instrument, a uniform target selection and calibration is also
crucial to perform precision tests of cosmology without having to build a ‘ladder’ from different
surveys selecting different targets. On the other hand it is also easy to see the synergy between
these ground-based surveys and Euclid: by mapping different targets (over the same sky area
and ofter the same redshift range) one can gain better control over issues such as bias factors.
The use of multiple tracers of cosmic large scale structure can reduce systematic effects and
ultimately increase the precision of dark-energy measurements from galaxy redshift surveys [see, e.g.,
811].
Moreover, having both spectroscopic and imaging capabilities Euclid is uniquely poised to explore the clustering with both the three dimensional distribution of galaxies and weak gravitational lensing.
Planck will provide highly accurate constraints on many cosmological parameters, which makes the
construction of a Planck Fisher matrix somewhat non-trivial as it is very sensitive to the detailed
assumptions. A relatively robust approach was used by [676] to construct a Gaussian approximation to the
WMAP data by introducing two extra parameters,
In this scheme, describes the peak location through the angular diameter distance to decoupling
and the size of the sound horizon at that time. If the geometry changes, either due to non-zero curvature or
due to a different equation of state of dark energy,
changes in the same way as the peak structure.
encodes similar information, but in addition contains the matter density which is connected
with the peak height. In a given class of models (for example, quintessence dark energy), these
parameters are “observables” related to the shape of the observed CMB spectrum, and constraints on
them remain the same independent of (the prescription for) the equation of state of the dark
energy.
As a caveat we note that if some assumptions regarding the evolution of perturbations are changed, then
the corresponding and
constraints and covariance matrix will need to be recalculated under each
such hypothesis, for instance, if massive neutrinos were to be included, or even if tensors were included in
the analysis [255]. Further,
as defined in Eq. (1.8.38
) can be badly constrained and is quite useless if
the dark energy clusters as well, e.g., if it has a low sound speed, as in the model discussed
in [534].
In order to derive a Planck fisher matrix, [676] simulated Planck data as described in [703
] and derived
constraints on our base parameter set
with a MCMC based likelihood analysis. In
addition to
and
they used the baryon density
, and optionally the spectral index of the
scalar perturbations
, as these are strongly correlated with
and
, which means that we will lose
information if we do not include these correlations. As shown in [676
], the resulting Fisher matrix loses
some information relative to the full likelihood when only considering Planck data, but it is very close to the
full analysis as soon as extra data is used. Since this is the intended application here, it is perfectly
sufficient for our purposes.
The following tables, from [676], give the covariance matrix for quintessence-like dark energy (high
sound speed, no anisotropic stress) on the base parameters and the Fisher matrix derived from it. Please
consult the appendix of that paper for the precise method used to compute
and
as the results are
sensitive to small variations.
Parameter
|
mean
|
rms variance
|
![]() |
||
![]() |
1.7016 | 0.0055 |
![]() |
302.108 | 0.098 |
![]() |
0.02199 | 0.00017 |
![]() |
0.9602 | 0.0038 |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
|
![]() |
||||
![]() |
0.303492E–04 | 0.297688E–03 | –0.545532E–06 | –0.175976E–04 |
![]() |
0.297688E–03 | 0.951881E–02 | –0.759752E–05 | –0.183814E–03 |
![]() |
–0.545532E–06 | –0.759752E-05 | 0.279464E–07 | 0.238882E–06 |
![]() |
–0.175976E–04 | –0.183814E-03 | 0.238882E–06 | 0.147219E–04 |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
|
![]() |
.172276E+06 | .490320E+05 | .674392E+06 | –.208974E+07 | .325219E+07 | –.790504E+07 | –.549427E+05 |
![]() |
.490320E+05 | .139551E+05 | .191940E+06 | –.594767E+06 | .925615E+06 | –.224987E+07 | –.156374E+05 |
![]() |
.674392E+06 | .191940E+06 | .263997E+07 | –.818048E+07 | .127310E+08 | –.309450E+08 | –.215078E+06 |
![]() |
–.208974E+07 | –.594767E+06 | –.818048E+07 | .253489E+08 | –.394501E+08 | .958892E+08 | .666335E+06 |
![]() |
.325219E+07 | .925615E+06 | .127310E+08 | –.394501E+08 | .633564E+08 | –.147973E+09 | –.501247E+06 |
![]() |
–.790504E+07 | –.224987E+07 | –.309450E+08 | .958892E+08 | –.147973E+09 | .405079E+09 | .219009E+07 |
![]() |
–.549427E+05 | –.156374E+05 | –.215078E+06 | .666335E+06 | –.501247E+06 | .219009E+07 | .242767E+06 |
http://www.livingreviews.org/lrr-2013-6 |
Living Rev. Relativity 16, (2013), 6
![]() This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. E-mail us: |